https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallacy

Hasty Generalization - Making a generalization from a ridiculous small sample. Requires enough empirical evidence to become warranted and convincing.

Relevance Fallacy - Argument may be sound but misses the point. Red herring – Diverting the argument to unrelated issues

Straw Man – Over simplifying one’s argument

Ad Hominem – Insulting someone’s character

Begging the Question – Assume the conclusion of an argument, a kind of circular reasoning

Non-Sequitur – Making jumps in logic

Bandwagoning – Asserting that everyone agrees

Either/or Fallacy – Creating a “false dilemma” in which the situation is oversimplified

Card-Stacking – Selectively using facts

False Equivalence / False Analogy – Making false or misleading comparisons

Appeal to the Stone – dismissing a claim as absurd without demonstrating proof for its absurdity.

Appeal to Ignorance – assuming that a claim is true because it has not been or cannot be proven false, or vice versa.

Appeal to Common Sense – “I cannot imagine how this could be true; therefore, it must be false.”

Argument from Repetition (argumentum ad nauseam, argumentum ad infinitum) – signifies that it has been discussed extensively until nobody cares to discuss it anymore; sometimes confused with proof by assertion

Argument from Silence (argumentum ex silentio) – where the conclusion is based on the absence of evidence, rather than the existence of evidence.

False Compromise, Fallacy of the Mean – assuming that the compromise between two positions is always correct.

Begging the Question (petitio principii) – providing what is essentially the conclusion of the argument as a premise.

Shifting the Burden of Proof – I need not prove my claim, you must prove it is false.

Circular Reasoning – when the reasoner begins with what he or she is trying to end up with; sometimes called assuming the conclusion. Circular cause and consequence – where the consequence of the phenomenon is claimed to be its root cause.

Continuum Fallacy (fallacy of the beard, line-drawing fallacy, bald man fallacy) – improperly rejecting a claim for being imprecise.

Correlation Proves Causation (post hoc ergo propter hoc) – a faulty assumption that because there is a correlation between two variables that one caused the other.

Suppressed Correlative – where a correlative is redefined so that one alternative is made impossible.

Divine Fallacy – arguing that, because something is so incredible, it must be the result of superior, divine, alien or paranormal agency.

Double Counting – counting events or occurrences more than once in probabilistic reasoning, which leads to the sum of the probabilities of all cases exceeding unity.

Equivocation – the misleading use of a term with more than one meaning (by glossing over which meaning is intended at a particular time).

Ambiguous Middle Term – a common ambiguity in syllogisms in which the middle term is equivocated.

Definitional Retreat – changing the meaning of a word to deal with an objection raised against the original wording.

Fallacy of Accent – a specific type of ambiguity that arises when the meaning of a sentence is changed by placing an unusual prosodic stress, or when, in a written passage, it’s left unclear which word the emphasis was supposed to fall on.

Fallacy of Composition – assuming that something true of part of a whole must also be true of the whole.

Fallacy of Division – assuming that something true of a thing must also be true of all or some of its parts.

False Attribution – an advocate appeals to an irrelevant, unqualified, unidentified, biased or fabricated source in support of an argument.

Fallacy of Quoting out of Context – refers to the selective excerpting of words from their original context in a way that distorts the source’s intended meaning.

False Authority – using an expert of dubious credentials or using only one opinion to sell a product or idea. Related to the appeal to authority fallacy.

False Dilemma (false dichotomy, fallacy of bifurcation, black-or-white fallacy) – two alternative statements are held to be the only possible options, when in reality there are more.

False Equivalence – describing a situation of logical and apparent equivalence, when in fact there is none.

Fallacy of Many Questions (complex question, fallacy of presupposition, loaded question, plurium interrogationum) – someone asks a question that presupposes something that has not been proven or accepted by all the people involved. This fallacy is often used rhetorically, so that the question limits direct replies to those that serve the questioner’s agenda.

Causal Oversimplification – it is assumed that there is one, simple cause of an outcome when in reality it may have been caused by a number of only jointly sufficient causes.

Comparative Political Values

Conservative comes from the Latin word conservare, which means "to preserve"; Nobles were conservatives because they already had much of the power and wealth and wanted to preserve the current laws that benefited them.

Liberal comes from the Latin word liberalis, meaning "of freedom"; revolutionaries were liberals/progressives because they wanted society to progress so they could have freedom and equal rights.

Where they are similar

Values	Liberal	Conservative
Economy	Capitalism	Capitalism
Government	Democracy	Democracy
Governance	Limited	Limited
Civil Rights	Individual	Individual
Freedom of Speech	Freedom of Speech	Freedom of Speech
Freedom of Press	Freedom of Press	Freedom of Press
Freedom of Religion	Freedom of Religion	Freedom of Religion

Rule of Law Individual rights and freedoms Private Property

Where they differ

Value	Liberal	Conservative
Change	Fast	Slow
Responsibility	Society	Self

We are suffering right now. Huge ideological divide is separating us from friends and family. Yet We have so many shared common values so why is this happening?

One telling feature of social media is extremism.

The problem with Extremism

It is characterized by violence & suppression

Value	Far Left	Lib	Con	Far right
nationalism	ultra	moderate	moderate	extreme
authority	Dictatorial	democratic	democratic	Dictatorial
ethnicity	genocide	open	open	genocide
opposition	suppression	protected	protected	suppression
society	regimentation	open & free	open & free	regimentation

Major Political Structures

Liberalism

Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on

• liberty,
• consent of the governed, and
• equality before the law.

Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but they generally support:

• limited government,

• individual rights (including civil rights and human rights),

• capitalism (free markets),

• democracy,

• secularism,

• gender equality,

• racial equality,

• internationalism,

• freedom of speech,

• freedom of the press and

• freedom of religion.

We believe that human beings are essentially individuals endowed with reason and should be afforded the maximum possible freedom consistent with freedom for all. However, equality and equal opportunities should be accompanied with responsibility and hard work. These principles are articulated in the core values of liberalism that include the following:

• Individualism – the belief in the importance of the individual over any social group or collective body.

• Rationalism – the belief that the world has a rational structure, and that this can be disclosed through the exercise of human reason and critical inquiry.

• Freedom – the ability to think or act as one wishes in accordance with self-determination.

• Responsibility – being responsible for oneself and one’s own economic and social circumstance.

• Justice - morally justifiable distribution of rewards and punishment.

• Tolerance - forbearance, a willingness to accept views or actions that one disagrees or of which one disapproves.

Liberalism - worldwide political ideology

liberalism, political doctrine that takes protecting and enhancing the freedom of the individual to be the central problem of politics.

Liberalism has its roots in the Western Age of Enlightenment.

"Broadly speaking, liberalism emphasizes individual rights. It seeks a society characterized by freedom of thought for individuals, limitations on power, especially of government and religion, the rule of law, the free exchange of ideas, a market economy that supports relatively free private enterprise, and a transparent system of government in which the Fundamental human rights that all liberals support include the right to life, liberty, and property."

rights of all citizens are protected. In modern society, liberals favour a liberal democracy with open and fair elections, where all citizens have equal rights by law and an equal opportunity to succeed.

Fundamental human rights that all liberals support include the right to life, liberty, and property.

Liberalism rejected many foundational assumptions which dominated most earlier theories of government, such as the Divine Right of Kings, hereditary status, and established religion.

Conservatism

Conservatism is a political and social philosophy promoting traditional social institutions in the context of culture and civilization. The central tenets of conservatism include:

• tradition,
• organic society,
• hierarchy,
• authority, and
• property rights.

Conservatives seek to preserve a range of institutions such as:

• religion,
• parliamentary government, and
• property rights, with the
• emphasizing social stability and continuity.

So where are Conservatism and Liberalism at odds with each other since they seem to have so much in common?

Communism

Communism is a philosophical, social, political, economic ideology and movement whose ultimate goal is the establishment of a communist society, namely a socioeconomic order structured upon the ideas of:

• common ownership of the means of production and the
• absence of social classes, money and the state.

Socialism

Socialism is a range of economic and social systems characterised by

• social ownership of the means of production and
• workers' self-management,

Ironically, free market capitalism does not prevent this, and it never materializes

Fascism

Fascism is a form of radical right-wing,

• authoritarian ultranationalism characterized by
• dictatorial power,
• forcible suppression of opposition, and
• strong regimentation of society and of the economy

National Socialism more commonly known as Nazism, is the ideology and practices associated with the Nazi Party—officially the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP)—in Nazi Germany, and of other far-right groups with similar ideas and aims.

Variations on classic political structures

Liberal conservatism

Incorporates the classical liberal view of

• minimal government intervention in the economy. Individuals should be free to participate in the market and generate wealth without government interference

Conservative Reactionaries

The more traditional elements, —reactionaries—, oppose modernism and seek a return to "the way things were". Disposition in politics to preserve what is established - a political philosophy based on tradition and social stability, stressing established institutions, and preferring gradual development to abrupt change. such a philosophy calling for:

• lower taxes,
• limited government
• regulation of business and investing, a
• strong national defense, and
• individual financial responsibility for personal needs (such as retirement income or health-care coverage)

Classical liberalism

Classical liberalism is a political ideology and a branch of liberalism which advocates civil liberties under the rule of law with an emphasis on economic freedom

Progressivism

Progressivism is the support for or

• advocacy of social reform.

As a philosophy, it is based on the idea of progress, which asserts that advancements in science, technology, economic development and social organization are vital to the improvement of the human condition.

Progressives in the early-20th century as well as now, take the view that progress is being stifled by vast

• economic inequality between the rich and the poor; minimally regulated
• laissez-faire capitalism with monopolistic corporations; and intense and often violent
• conflict between workers and capitalists,

thus claiming that measures were needed to address these problems. Early-20th century progressivism was also tied to eugenics and the temperance movement, both of which were promoted in the name of public health, and were promoted as initiatives toward that goal. Contemporary progressives promote public policies that they believe will lead to positive social change.

Far-left

Not exactly sure but current trends such as Globalism, DEI, Political Correctness, BLM, may all be examples of extreme leftism because their tactics are clearly coercive and suppress opposition and discussion and include an element of terrorism, anarchy and destruction

Far-right

Far-right politics are politics further on the right of the left-right spectrum than the standard political right, particularly in terms of

• extreme nationalism,
• nativist ideologies, and
• authoritarian tendencies. These can lead to
• oppression,
• violence,
• forced assimilation,
• ethnic cleansing, and even
• genocide against groups of people based on their supposed inferiority, or their perceived threat to the native ethnic group, nation, state, national religion, dominant culture or ultraconservative traditional social institutions

Right-wing populism

Right-wing populism is a political ideology which combines right-wing politics and populist rhetoric and themes. The rhetoric often consists of

• anti-elitist sentiments,
• opposition to the perceived Establishment, and
• speaking to the "common people."

In Europe, the term right-wing populism is used to describe groups, politicians and political parties that are generally known for their:

• opposition to immigration, mostly from the Islamic world and in most cases Euroscepticism. Right-wing populism in the Western world is generally—though not exclusively—associated with ideologies such as:
• anti-environmentalism,
• neo-nationalism, a
• nti-globalization,
• nativism,
• protectionism, and
• opposition to immigration.

Traditional right-wing views such as:

• opposition to the increasing amount of support for the welfare state and a "more lavish, but more restrictive, domestic social spending" scheme is also called right-wing populism and it is sometimes called "welfare chauvinism"

Left-wing populism

Left-wing populism combines left-wing politics and populist rhetoric and themes. The rhetoric of left-wing populism often consists of anti-elitist sentiments, opposition to the Establishment and speaking for the "common people".

The important themes for left-wing populists usually includes anti-capitalism, social justice, pacifism and anti-globalization,

Principles

What are the basic principles that one can evaluate the various political systems against?

Liberty

Liberty - is the ability to do as one pleases. In modern politics, liberty is the state of being free within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's way of life, behavior, or political views

Freedom of Speech - freedom to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or legal sanction. everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice". may not be recognized as being absolute. libel, slander, obscenity, pornography, sedition, incitement, fighting words, classified information, copyright violation, trade secrets, food labeling, non-disclosure agreements, the right to privacy, the right to be forgotten, public security, and perjury.

Freedom of the Press - absence of interference from an overreaching state

Freedom of Religion - freedom in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance

Equality

Equality Under the Law - is the principle that each independent being must be treated equally by the law (principle of isonomy) and that all are subject to the same laws of justice (due process).[1] Therefore, the law must guarantee that no individual nor group of individuals be privileged or discriminated against by the government

Rule of Law

Rule of Law - implies that every person is subject to the law, including people who are lawmakers, law enforcement officials, and judges

Consent of the Governed - refers to the idea that a government's legitimacy and moral right to use state power is only justified and lawful when consented to by the people or society over which that political power is exercised

Limited Government - govt restricted by constitution.

Individual Rights - human rights protected by constitution

Capitalism (free markets) - private ownership of the means of production and their operations for profit.

Democracy - citizens vote, governing by representation.

Secularism – governing with the exclusion of religious considerations

Gender Equality - equal ease of access to resources and opportunities without regard to gender

Racial Equality - equal ease of access to resources and opportunities without regard to race

Internationalism (transcends nationalism and advocates a greater political or economic cooperation among nations and people)

Tradition - is a belief or behavior passed down within a group or society with symbolic meaning or special significance with origins in the past

Authority - is the right to exercise power, which can be formalized by a state and exercised by way of judges, appointed executives of government, or the ecclesiastical or priestly appointed representatives

Right to own Property (ownership) is often classified as a human right for natural persons regarding their possessions.

Civil Liberties or Personal Freedoms - are personal guarantees and freedoms that the government cannot abridge, either by law or by judicial interpretation, without due process

Economic Freedom - comes from the liberal tradition emphasizing free markets, free trade, and private property under free enterprise

Reform Movement - is a type of social movement that aims to bring a social or political system closer to the (community's ideal) – boy that is a subjective comment

Progressivism - is the movement towards a refined, improved, or otherwise desired state or, in the context of progressivism, the idea that advancements in technology, science, and social organization can result in an improved human condition; the latter may happen as a result of direct human action, as in social enterprise or through activism, or as a natural part of sociocultural evolution n0va

Laissez-faire - opposing governmental interference in economic affairs beyond the minimum necessary for the maintenance of peace and property rights - individual freedom of choice and action

Fine tuning - Social issues of the day, create a discussion around a cluster of thought.

Gender equality – protection of women from? ... falls under safety and security

Immigration -

Deficit Financing -

Abortion-

Climate Action-

Environment -

Covid Restrictions -

What is peer review and why is it so important to the science community?

You carry out research and write a paper on your methods and findings. The paper is submitted to publishers for peer review. Thats the first problem, the gatekeepers. The publisher selects a couple of "reviewers" to go over your paper. That is the second problem, I was under the mistaken assumption that any number of people can review Once the review is complete, the publisher may or not publish your paper. That is the third problem.

In the strictest sense, the scientific method allows anyone to make a claim as long as it is observable and repeatable. Therefore feedback is built into the scientific method. Making your findings available to the general scientific community so that they can read, question and attempt to replicate your findings.

(from wikipedia)

The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.

To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.

The Oxford Dictionaries Online define the scientific method as “a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses”.

Experiments need to be designed to test hypotheses. The most important part of the scientific method is the experiment.

The scientific method is a continuous process, which usually begins with observations about the natural world. Human beings are naturally inquisitive, so they often come up with questions about things they see or hear and often develop ideas (hypotheses) about why things are the way they are. The best hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways, including making further observations about nature. In general, the strongest tests of hypotheses come from carefully controlled and replicated experiments that gather empirical data. Depending on how well the tests match the predictions, the original hypothesis may require refinement, alteration, expansion or even rejection. If a particular hypothesis becomes very well supported a general theory may be developed.

Peer Review

What is peer review and why is it so important to the science community?

• You carry out research and write a paper on your methods and findings.

• The paper is submitted to publishers for peer review. Thats the first problem, the gatekeepers.

• The publisher selects a couple of "reviewers" to go over your paper. That is the second problem. I was under the mistaken assumption that any number of people can review. Not so, only those chosen by the publisher.

• Once the review is complete, the publisher may or not publish your paper. That is the third problem. They have positioned themselves as gatekeepers.

In the strictest sense, the scientific method allows anyone to make a claim as long as it is observable and repeatable. Therefore feedback is built into the scientific method: by making your findings available to the general scientific community, so that they can read, question and attempt to replicate your findings.

These solutions are “regulated” by an industry heavily funded by the manufacturers. The research is conducted in academic institutions funded and staffed by the manufacturers. The findings are published in journals funded by the manufacturers. The professional societies which analyze their data and generate management ‘guidelines’ and ‘standards’ are funded by the manufacturers.

"Biology constitutes a third of total basic science and half of all academic research. Biology’s dominance of research as resulted from a massive infusion of federal funds, mostly through the NIH. …the NIH has since the 1950s developed a voracious appetite for money…1955 budget hovered somewhere around $100 million…[in 1996] it spends closer to $10 billion...While academic institutions formerly provided their own limited monies for research, NIH grants have now become a major source of income for the larger and increasingly dependent universities." - Professor Peter Duesberg, Inventing the AIDS Virus (1996)

(phi3:3.8b)>>> Explain the scientific method

The scientific method is a systematic, logical approach to discovering new knowledge and understanding phenomena through observation and experimentation. It involves several steps:

1. Observation - Identifying an observable phenomenon or problem that needs investigation. Scientists often observe patterns in nature before formulating hypotheses about how things work.

2. Question Formulation - The researcher asks a question based on the observations, aiming to explain what has been observed and why it happens. A good scientific question is testable and measurable by experimentation or observation. For instance: "Why do leaves change color in autumn?" becomes “How does temperature affect leaf pigment concentration?”

3. Hypothesis Development - The researcher formulates a hypothesis, which is an educated guess about the possible outcome of an investigation based on prior knowledge and understanding gained from observation or study of previous evidence related to the question posed. This hypothesized answer should be testable through experimentation or further observations: "If temperatures decrease in autumn months then leaf pigment concentration will increase because cold weather slows metabolic processes that degrade chlorophyll."

4. Experimentation - The researcher sets up a controlled study to confirm the hypothesis, where they manipulate variables (independent) and measure their impact on dependent variables while holding other factors constant as much as possible: "Expose plants of various species growing in identical conditions with varying temperatures during autumn months."

5. Data Collection - The researcher collects data from experiments or observations by taking measurements, counting occurrences, recording behaviors and responses to stimuli among the test subjects over a predetermined time frame: "Measure leaf pigment concentration every day for three weeks under different temperature regimes using appropriate laboratory equipment."

6. Analysis - The collected data is analyzed statistically to identify patterns or relationships that could either support or refute the hypothesis developed earlier in this process, and researchers must consider if any anomalies exist which may need additional investigation: "Determine correlation between temperature decrease with increasing concentration of leaf pigment using statistical tests."

7. Conclusion - The results are then interpreted to draw conclusions about whether or not the hypothesis is supported by evidence, and researchers discuss what their findings mean in relation to existing knowledge on the subject matter: "The data shows a strong correlation between temperature decrease with increasing concentration of leaf pigment; hence it supports our initial hypothesized relationship."

8. Communication - The results are then communicated through scientific papers, posters and presentations for peer review by sharing findings in academic journals or conferences: "Submit research paper to a respected journal on plant science discussing the effect of temperature decrease with increased leaf pigment concentration." This is an essential step as it allows other scientists to verify results, provide feedback, replicate experiments and build upon existing work.

9. Replication - Experiments are often repeated independently by different researchers or groups in order to confirm findings that support the hypothesis: "Repeat this experiment with several independent samples of plants from various regions around the world." This helps ensure accuracy and reliability of scientific discoveries over time.

The roots of sophistry go back to Greek times and are attributed to Socrates, Aristotle and the plays of Plato. At the time it was known as the Art of Teaching and it’s name derives from wisdom. Although it somewhat incorporated philosophy, it has always had a bad reputation because it fails to teach virtue. Sophism has always dominated politics, the formation of democracy, and the teaching methods in schools. It is still very much the dominant force today, but in modern times is known as the Art of Deceiving.

A sophism is a specious argument for displaying ingenuity in reasoning or for deceiving someone. A sophist is a person who reasons with clever but fallacious and deceptive arguments.

In contrast to sophistry, philosophy also refers to a body of knowledge and the search for knowledge. In my mind, it is it’s overriding truth seeking that sets it apart from sophistry.

Why is this important to the understanding of climate change? For the simple reason that much about the argumentation in public discourse on Climate Change is full of sophisms. For example how many of the following have you seen?

• Ad hominem – Insulting someone’s character which is the typical conversational starter, beginning with calling people Deniers, who are really just skeptical and may actually know better what is going on.

• Straw man – Over simplifying one’s argument

• Bandwagoning – Asserting that everyone agrees, such as, 97% of scientists!

• Shifting the burden of proof – I do not need to prove my claim, you must prove it is false.

• Correlation proves causation – A faulty assumption that because there is a correlation between two variables that one caused the other.

Yet we know that any scientific claim must be supported through observation and experimentation, not a bunch of fallacious arguments. Furthermore, all the alarm is about projected future changes which are themselves just another claim.

Thinking

• Analyze problems logically
• Weigh options based on their merits
• Avoid emotional involvement in decision-making
• Focus on what is "right" or "true"

Judging

• Prioritize external validation and approval
• Prefer clear-cut answers over ambiguous ones
• Organize their environment to achieve efficiency
• Value planning and scheduling

Structured approach: Judging types prefer a clear plan, schedule, or routine for their life. Orderliness: They value organization, neatness, and tidiness, both physically and mentally. External validation: Judging individuals tend to seek approval, respect, and admiration from others, often as a way to validate their own sense of self-worth. Planning and scheduling: Judging types are likely to plan and schedule events, tasks, and activities in advance, sometimes to the point of obsessiveness. Traditional values: They may hold strong traditional views on matters like morality, ethics, or social norms.

Prioritize tradition: They value established customs, rules, and social norms. Emphasize order and stability: Conservative judging types may focus on maintaining the status quo and avoiding change. Highlight accountability: They often stress individual responsibility and the importance of adhering to rules and regulations. Show a more rigid approach: Conservative judging individuals might be less flexible in their thinking and more likely to adhere to strict moral codes.

Emphasize individual freedom: Liberal judging types may prioritize personal autonomy, rights, and freedoms. Focus on equality and fairness: They often stress the importance of social justice, equal opportunities, and treating others with respect and dignity. Highlight flexibility and adaptability: Liberal judging individuals might be more open to change, diversity, and experimentation. Show a more nuanced approach: Liberal judging types can exhibit a more balanced view, considering multiple perspectives and context-specific solutions.

Objectivity: Judging types tend to separate themselves from emotional biases, focusing on objective facts. Efficiency: Their structured approach can lead to more efficient problem-solving and decision-making. Accountability: Judging individuals often prioritize accountability, ensuring that actions are taken in a responsible manner.

Lack of creativity: The structured approach can sometimes stifle creative thinking or out-of-the-box solutions. Overemphasis on rules: Judging types might prioritize established protocols over innovative approaches. Difficulty with ambiguity: They often struggle with situations that lack clear-cut answers or solutions.