scientific method

(from wikipedia)

The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.

To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.

The Oxford Dictionaries Online define the scientific method as “a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses”.

Experiments need to be designed to test hypotheses. The most important part of the scientific method is the experiment.

The scientific method is a continuous process, which usually begins with observations about the natural world. Human beings are naturally inquisitive, so they often come up with questions about things they see or hear and often develop ideas (hypotheses) about why things are the way they are. The best hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways, including making further observations about nature. In general, the strongest tests of hypotheses come from carefully controlled and replicated experiments that gather empirical data. Depending on how well the tests match the predictions, the original hypothesis may require refinement, alteration, expansion or even rejection. If a particular hypothesis becomes very well supported a general theory may be developed.

Peer Review

What is peer review and why is it so important to the science community?

• You carry out research and write a paper on your methods and findings.

• The paper is submitted to publishers for peer review. Thats the first problem, the gatekeepers.

• The publisher selects a couple of "reviewers" to go over your paper. That is the second problem. I was under the mistaken assumption that any number of people can review. Not so, only those chosen by the publisher.

• Once the review is complete, the publisher may or not publish your paper. That is the third problem. They have positioned themselves as gatekeepers.

In the strictest sense, the scientific method allows anyone to make a claim as long as it is observable and repeatable. Therefore feedback is built into the scientific method: by making your findings available to the general scientific community, so that they can read, question and attempt to replicate your findings.

These solutions are “regulated” by an industry heavily funded by the manufacturers. The research is conducted in academic institutions funded and staffed by the manufacturers. The findings are published in journals funded by the manufacturers. The professional societies which analyze their data and generate management ‘guidelines’ and ‘standards’ are funded by the manufacturers.

"Biology constitutes a third of total basic science and half of all academic research. Biology’s dominance of research as resulted from a massive infusion of federal funds, mostly through the NIH. …the NIH has since the 1950s developed a voracious appetite for money…1955 budget hovered somewhere around $100 million…[in 1996] it spends closer to $10 billion...While academic institutions formerly provided their own limited monies for research, NIH grants have now become a major source of income for the larger and increasingly dependent universities." - Professor Peter Duesberg, Inventing the AIDS Virus (1996)

(phi3:3.8b)>>> Explain the scientific method

The scientific method is a systematic, logical approach to discovering new knowledge and understanding phenomena through observation and experimentation. It involves several steps:

1. Observation - Identifying an observable phenomenon or problem that needs investigation. Scientists often observe patterns in nature before formulating hypotheses about how things work.

2. Question Formulation - The researcher asks a question based on the observations, aiming to explain what has been observed and why it happens. A good scientific question is testable and measurable by experimentation or observation. For instance: "Why do leaves change color in autumn?" becomes “How does temperature affect leaf pigment concentration?”

3. Hypothesis Development - The researcher formulates a hypothesis, which is an educated guess about the possible outcome of an investigation based on prior knowledge and understanding gained from observation or study of previous evidence related to the question posed. This hypothesized answer should be testable through experimentation or further observations: "If temperatures decrease in autumn months then leaf pigment concentration will increase because cold weather slows metabolic processes that degrade chlorophyll."

4. Experimentation - The researcher sets up a controlled study to confirm the hypothesis, where they manipulate variables (independent) and measure their impact on dependent variables while holding other factors constant as much as possible: "Expose plants of various species growing in identical conditions with varying temperatures during autumn months."

5. Data Collection - The researcher collects data from experiments or observations by taking measurements, counting occurrences, recording behaviors and responses to stimuli among the test subjects over a predetermined time frame: "Measure leaf pigment concentration every day for three weeks under different temperature regimes using appropriate laboratory equipment."

6. Analysis - The collected data is analyzed statistically to identify patterns or relationships that could either support or refute the hypothesis developed earlier in this process, and researchers must consider if any anomalies exist which may need additional investigation: "Determine correlation between temperature decrease with increasing concentration of leaf pigment using statistical tests."

7. Conclusion - The results are then interpreted to draw conclusions about whether or not the hypothesis is supported by evidence, and researchers discuss what their findings mean in relation to existing knowledge on the subject matter: "The data shows a strong correlation between temperature decrease with increasing concentration of leaf pigment; hence it supports our initial hypothesized relationship."

8. Communication - The results are then communicated through scientific papers, posters and presentations for peer review by sharing findings in academic journals or conferences: "Submit research paper to a respected journal on plant science discussing the effect of temperature decrease with increased leaf pigment concentration." This is an essential step as it allows other scientists to verify results, provide feedback, replicate experiments and build upon existing work.

9. Replication - Experiments are often repeated independently by different researchers or groups in order to confirm findings that support the hypothesis: "Repeat this experiment with several independent samples of plants from various regions around the world." This helps ensure accuracy and reliability of scientific discoveries over time.